Biological systems exhibit a high degree of hierarchical organisation, where individual elements come together to form more complex and unique entities, which integrate into tissues, organs, organisms, and entire communities. The interactions within these systems are highly combinatorial, leading to the emergence of holistic processes such as development, immune response, and ageing. These systems are dynamic, composed of densely packed components and shaped by intricate interactions that range from cooperative behaviours to competitive conflicts. Such interactions, driven by the unique roles of individual elements, can significantly influence the stability and functionality of the entire system.

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